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2002
THE PARLIAMENT OF THE COMMONWEALTH
OF AUSTRALIA
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
CRIMINAL
CODE AMENDMENT (ESPIONAGE AND RELATED OFFENCES) BILL
2002
EXPLANATORY MEMORANDUM
(Circulated by
authority of the Attorney-General,
the Honourable Daryl Williams AM QC
MP)
CRIMINAL CODE AMENDMENT
(ESPIONAGE AND
RELATED OFFENCES)
GENERAL OUTLINE
The main effect of the Bill is to establish new offences dealing with the protection of security and defence in Part 5.2 of the Criminal Code Act 1995.
The offences set out in Part 5.2 cover espionage and similar activities (Divisions 90 and 91) and soundings (Division 92).
The Bill substantially replicates the provisions in Part VII of the Crimes Act with respect to unlawful soundings offences (formerly section 83 of the Crimes Act). The espionage offences have been significantly changed to establish a more effective legal framework that both deters, and punishes, people who intend to betray Australia’s security interests. This Bill will strengthen Australia’s espionage laws in a number of ways:
• By referring to conduct that may prejudice Australia’s security and defence, rather then safety and defence, and explicitly defining this term, consequently affording protection to a range of material that may not be protected under the current laws. The term ‘security or defence’ will apply to both the espionage offence as well as the existing official secrets offences in section 79 of the Crimes Act;
• By expanding the range of activity that may constitute espionage to capture situations where a person disclosed information concerning the Commonwealth's security or defence with the intention of prejudicing the Commonwealth’s security or defence or to advantage the security or defence of another country;
• By affording the same protection to foreign sourced information belonging to Australia as Australian-generated information; and
• By increasing the maximum penalty for a person convicted of espionage from seven years imprisonment to 25 years imprisonment.
The Bill also sets out procedural matters in relation to the prosecution of offences under Part 5.2 of the Criminal Code (Division 93) and provides for the forfeiture of articles that have been dealt with in contravention of Part 5.2 (Division 94). Prosecutions under Part 5.2 of the Criminal Code will require the consent of the Attorney-General. This substantially replicates section 85 of the Crimes Act. Under the Bill, the option will remain for all or part of a prosecution or hearing of an offence under Part 5.2 to be heard in closed court. The question of whether a hearing will be held in closed court will continue to be decided by the court.
In addition, some offences in Part VII of the Crimes Act are repealed but are not replaced in the Criminal Code because they are no longer relevant or appropriate. These are:
• Section 81 – Harbouring Spies
• Section 83A – Illegal Use of Uniforms
• Section 83B – Special Powers of Arrest without Warrant
• Section 84 – Arrest of Persons In or About Prohibited Places
• Section 84A – Search of Suspects
• Section 85A – Offences by Directors or Officers of Companies
• Section 85C – Imprints as evidence
Financial Impact
It is not expected that the Bill will have a direct financial impact. In the event that a person commits an offence under the new provisions, any subsequent criminal prosecution would be undertaken in the normal way. The costs associated with any criminal proceedings in respect of the Commonwealth offences created by this Bill would be absorbed within existing budgets.
NOTES ON CLAUSES
This clause is a formal provision specifying the short title of the Bill.
Subclause 2(1) provides that each provision of the Criminal Code (Espionage and Related Offences) Bill 2002 (the Bill) listed in column 1 of the table commences, or is taken to have commenced, on the day specified in column 2 of the table.
Item 1 of the table provides that sections 1-3 of the Act and any other sections not covered in the table commence on the day on which the Act receives the Royal Assent.
Item 2 of the table provides that items 1, 2 and 3 of Schedule 1 to the Act commence on the 28th day after the day on which the Act receives the Royal Assent. Items 1 and 3 of Schedule 1 repeal provisions of the Crimes Act. Item 2 amends the official secrets provisions in section 79 of the Crimes Act to replace references to ‘safety or defence’ with the term ‘security or defence’.
Item 3 of the table provides that item 4 of Schedule 1 of the Act commences on the day the Act receives the Royal Assent. Item 4 of Schedule 1 inserts a new Chapter 5 into the Criminal Code to deal with offences relating to the integrity and security of the Commonwealth. The commencement of item 4 of Schedule 1 is subject to subclause 2(3). Subclause 2(3) provides that if either the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism Act 2002 or the Security Legislation Amendment (Terrorism) Act 2002 receives the Royal Assent before the day on which this Bill receives the Royal Assent, the provision covered by item 3 of the table does not commence at all. Subsection 2(3) has been included because, at the time of drafting, it could not be known which of the three Bills containing the provision establishing the new Chapter 5 would commence first.
Item 4 of the table provides that item 5 of Schedule 1 of the Act commences on the 28th day after the day on which the Act receives the Royal Assent. Item 5 of Schedule 1 inserts a new Part (Part 5.2) in the new Chapter 5 of the Criminal Code. Part 5.2 sets out the offences relating to espionage and similar activities.
Item 5 of the table provides that item 1 of Schedule 2 of the Act commences on the 28th day after the day on which the Act receives the Royal Assent so that it coincides with the commencement of item 1 of Schedule 1 of the Act. The commencement of item 1 of Schedule 2 is subject to subclause 2(4). Subsection 2(4) provides that if item 6 of Schedule 2 to the Security Legislation Amendment (Terrorism) Act 2002 commences before item 1 of Schedule 1 to this Act then item 1 of Schedule 2, which repeals subsection 4J(7) of the Crimes Act, does not commence at all. Subsection 2(4) has been included because, at the time of drafting, it could not be known whether this Bill or the Security Legislation Amendment (Terrorism) Act 2002, which contains an equivalent provision, would commence first.
Item 6 of the table provides that item 2 of Schedule 2 of the Act commences immediately after the commencement of item 1 of Schedule 1 of the Act which repeals section 78 of the Crimes Act. The commencement of item 2 of Schedule 2 is subject to subclause 2(5). Subclause 2(5) provides that if item 6 of Schedule 2 to the Security Legislation Amendment (Terrorism) Act 2002 commences before item 1 of Schedule 1 to this Act then item 2 of Schedule 2, which repeals subsection 4J(7) of the Crimes Act, does not commence at all.
Item 7 of the table provides that items 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 of Schedule 2 of the Act commences on the 28th day after the day on which the Act receives the Royal Assent.
Subclause 2(2) provides that Column 3 of the table is for additional information that is not part of this Bill. Relevant commencement dates may be entered into Column 3 by users of the Explanatory Memorandum in the future.
This clause provides that the Acts specified in each Schedule of the Bill are amended or repealed in accordance with the Schedules. This means that, under Schedule 1, various sections of the Crimes Act are repealed or amended as appropriate
Under Schedule 2 various provisions in the Crimes Act and the Australian Protective Service Act 1987 are amended to remove references to sections of the Crimes Act that are repealed as a result of this Bill. Where appropriate, new references to equivalent provisions in the Criminal Code are inserted.
Subclause 4(1) provides that the Bill is not intended to operate retrospectively. Offence provisions in Part VII of the Crimes Act that are repealed as a result of this Bill will apply to offences that take place before the Bill commences. Those provisions will also continue to apply in relation to proceedings for an offence alleged to have been committed before the commencement of this clause and any matter arising from those proceedings.
Subsection 4(2) provides that subsection 4(1) does not limit the operation of section 8 of the Acts Interpretation Act 1901. Section 8 of the Acts Interpretation Act provides that, where an Act repeals all or part of a former Act, the repeal shall not revive anything not in force or existing at the time at which the repeal takes effect or affect the previous operation of the repealed Act. This includes any rights or liabilities incurred, any punishment or penalty owing, or any investigation or legal proceeding that has arisen as a consequence of the repealed Act.
Item 1 repeals section 78 of the Crimes Act, which sets out the offence of espionage and similar activities. Offences relating to espionage and similar activities will be set out in Part 5.2 of the Criminal Code.
Item 2 replaces references to the term ‘safety or defence’ in section 79 of the Crimes Act with the term ‘security or defence’. Section 79 of the Crimes Act sets out the official secrets offences. The purpose of this change is to establish consistency between the official secrets provisions in the Crimes Act and the espionage provisions in the Criminal Code. The new espionage offences created by this Bill refer to security or defence. The change to the term ‘security or defence’ in the Bill reflects the modern intelligence environment. The term ‘security’ is intended to capture information about the operations, capabilities and technologies, methods and sources of Australian intelligence and security agencies. The term ‘safety’ is unlikely to include such information.
Item 3 repeals provisions in the Crimes Act either because those provisions are no longer relevant or appropriate, or because equivalent provisions are inserted in the Criminal Code.
The provisions that have been repealed because they are no longer relevant or appropriate are:
• Section 81 – Harbouring Spies
• Section 83A – Illegal Use of Uniforms, Official Permits, Impersonations etc
• Section 83B – Special Powers of Arrest without Warrant
• Section 84 – Arrest of Persons In or About Prohibited Places
• Section 84A – Search of Suspects
• Section 85A – Offences by Directors or Officers of Companies
• Section 85C – Imprints to be Evidence
Section 83 of the Crimes Act which deals with unlawful soundings offences is repealed and replaced with new provisions in the Criminal Code. Division 92 of the Criminal Code sets out the offence relating to soundings. Division 92 substantially replicates section 83 of the Crimes Act.
Item 4 inserts a new Chapter into the Criminal Code: Chapter 5 – The integrity and security of the Commonwealth. It is noted that if either the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism Act 2002 or the Security Legislation Amendment (Terrorism) Act 2002 receives the Royal Assent before the day on which this Bill receives the Royal Assent, item 4 does not commence at all. This note has been inserted because, at the time of drafting, it could not be known which of the three Bills containing the provision establishing the new Chapter 5 would commence first.
Item 5 inserts a new Part 5.2 into Chapter 5 of the Criminal Code. Many of the provisions formerly located in Part VII of the Crimes Act are replicated in Part 5.2 of the Criminal Code, including the new espionage offence provisions.
Part 5.2 of the Criminal Code consists of five divisions, within which there are a number of sections. This is consistent with the Criminal Code structure. In the future, new divisions and sections can be inserted in Part 5.2 as required.
Clause 90.1 defines certain terms for the purposes of Part 5.2 of the Criminal Code. Other definitions as contained in the Criminal Code Dictionary continue to apply to Part 5.2 except where terms are otherwise defined in section 90.1.
Subclauses 91.1(1) – (4) sets out four espionage offences. The maximum penalty for each type of espionage offence is 25 years imprisonment.
For the purposes of section 91.1, ‘intention’ has the meaning given in section 5.2 of the Criminal Code.
All four offences relate to the unlawful use or disclosure of information concerning the Commonwealth’s security or defence or information concerning the security or defence of another country, being information that is, or has been, in the possession or control of the Commonwealth. These provisions provide protection to information generated by the Commonwealth as well as information generated by other countries in Australia’s possession or control.
Section 78 of the Crimes Act referred to a person communicating information with the intention of prejudicing the safety or defence of the Commonwealth. The new espionage offences refer to security or defence. The change to the term ‘security or defence’ in the Bill reflects the modern intelligence environment. The term ‘security’ is intended to capture information about the operations, capabilities and technologies, methods and sources of Australian intelligence and security agencies. The term ‘safety’ is unlikely to include such information. The term ‘security or defence’ is broadly defined in section 90.1 of the Bill.
Subclause 91.1(1) provides that a person commits an offence if that person communicates or makes available information concerning the Commonwealth’s security or defence or information concerning the security or defence of another country in the possession or control of the Commonwealth, intending to prejudice the Commonwealth’s security or defence. An additional element of the offence is that the person’s act results in, or is likely to result in, the information being disclosed to another country or a foreign organisation, or to a person acting on behalf of such a country or organisation.
Subclause 91.1(2) provides that a person commits an offence if the person communicates or makes available information concerning the Commonwealth’s security or defence or information concerning the security or defence of another country that is, or has been in the possession or control of the Commonwealth, and the person does so without lawful authority intending to give an advantage to another country’s security or defence. An additional element of the offence is that the person’s act results in, or is likely to result in, the information being disclosed to another country or a foreign organisation, or to a person acting on behalf of such a country or organisation. This offence is not intended to capture situations where information is communicated as part of an authorised information exchange arrangement between the Commonwealth and its allies.
Subclause 91.1(3) creates an offence that has the same elements as an offence under subclause 91.1(1) except that it relates to situations where a person makes, obtains or copies a record in any form of information concerning the Commonwealth’s security or defence or information concerning the security or defence of another country that is, or has been, in the possession or control of the Commonwealth.
Subclause 91.1(4) creates an offence that has the same elements as an offence under subclause 91.1(2) except that it relates to situations where a person makes, obtains or copies a record in any form of information concerning the Commonwealth’s security or defence or information concerning the security or defence of another country that is, or has been, in the possession or control of the Commonwealth.
Subclause 91.1(5) provides that a person does not need to have a particular country, foreign organisation or person in mind at the time when he or she makes, obtains or copies the record under the offence provisions in subclauses 91.1(3) and 91.1(4).
A person charged with an espionage offence may apply for bail. Any application for bail will be decided under the appropriate bail legislation of the State or Territory in which the charges are brought except to the extent that subclause 91.1(6) operates. Subclause 91.1(6) specifically provides that a person charged with an espionage offence under clause 91.1 will only be remanded on bail by a judge of the Supreme Court of a State or Territory.
Subclause 91.1(6) has effect despite anything in clause 93.1. Clause 93.1 deals with the institution of proceedings with the consent of the Attorney-General.
Under subclause 91.1(7) an extended geographical jurisdiction will apply to offences under clause 91.1. Section 15.4 of the Criminal Code provides that, where a law of the Commonwealth provides that this section applies to a particular offence, the offence applies whether or not the conduct constituting the alleged offence occurs in Australia; and whether or not a result of the conduct constituting the alleged offence occurs in Australia. This means that the espionage offence provisions in this Bill will potentially apply to all possible circumstances, within and outside Australia, in which espionage might threaten Australian interests. The offences will apply to conduct anywhere and by any person that violates the offence provisions in clause 91.1. Consequently, in addition to covering conduct within Australia, clause 91.1 would extend to a foreign national who obtains relevant Australian information in another country, for example by breaking into an Australian mission.
Clause 92.1 substantially replicates section 83 of the Crimes Act, which prohibits unlawful soundings.
The maximum penalty for unlawfully taking, recording, intentionally possessing or communicating a sounding is 2 years imprisonment.
Under subclause 92.1(5), for the purposes of this section, a reference to a sounding includes a reference to a hydrographic survey.
Paragraphs 92.1(1)(a) – (e) set out the separate elements of each possible offence under this section. A person’s actions may constitute an offence under one or more of these offence provisions.
There are significant security, safety and defence risks associated with soundings being unlawfully communicated to any person outside the Commonwealth particularly where, as a consequence of the communication, the Commonwealth does not exclusively retain the best possible information about the hydrographic characteristics of its territorial waters. For this reason, all records of unlawful soundings are forfeited to the Commonwealth under subclause 92.1(4).
Subclause 92.1(1) provides that taking, making a record of, possession of or communicating any sounding is an offence. Under subclause 92.1(2), the defendant bears the legal burden of proving that any soundings were not unlawfully taken because they were made under the authority of the Commonwealth Government, a State Government or the Government of a Territory. It is also open to the defendant to prove that the soundings were taken, made or communicated because they were reasonably necessary for the navigation purposes of the vessel from which they were taken or for any purpose in which the vessel from which they were taken was lawfully engaged. Clause 92.1 is not intended to capture situations where vessels obtain soundings to safely navigate their course.
Subclause 92.1(2) reverses the onus of proof so that the defendant bears the onus of proving that any figure or word or sign on any map or sketch of any portion of the coast or territorial waters of Australia is not an unlawful record of a sounding. Unlawfully making a record of a sounding is an offence under paragraph 92.1(1)(b) of the Bill.
Under subclause 92.1(6), a sounding means a sounding taken in the territorial waters of the Commonwealth. The limits of the Commonwealth territorial waters are determined pursuant to the Commonwealth Seas and Submerged Lands Act 1973.
Clause 93.1 substantially replicates section 85 of the Crimes Act. Section 85 of the Crimes Act will continue in relation to prosecutions under Part VII of the Crimes Act.
Under subclause 93.1(1), a prosecution of an offence under Part 5.2 of the Criminal Code will only be instituted with the consent of the Attorney-General or a person acting under the Attorney-General’s direction. This provision applies to the espionage offences (Division 91), the soundings offence (Division 92) and the contravention of an order made, or direction given, under the hearing in camera provisions (section 93.2).
Prosecutions of offences against Part 5.2 are likely to raise issues regarding matters of national security or sensitive international relations that require government to government contact. The Attorney-General’s consent is required with respect to prosecutions of offences under other security and counter-terrorism legislation. The Weapons of Mass Destruction (Prevention of Proliferation) Act 1995 (section 20), Crimes (Foreign Incursions and Recruitment) Act 1978 (section 10), Crimes (Internationally Protected Persons) Act 1976 (subsection 12(3)) and the Crimes (Biological Weapons) Act 1976 (subsection 10(3)) all contain consent provisions similar to the consent provision in subclause 93.1(1).
Under subclause 93.1(2) a person charged with an offence against Part 5.2 of the Criminal Code may be arrested and remanded in custody or bail in the normal way even before the consent of the Attorney-General, or a person acting under his or her direction, is obtained. Paragraph 93.1(2)(b) is subject to the condition in subclause 93.1(6) - this clause does not exist with regard to bail for a person charged with an espionage offence under section 91.1 (ie. bail can only be granted by a judge of the Supreme Court of a State or Territory)
Clause 93.2 provides that members of the public may be excluded from all or part of a hearing of an application or other proceeding before a federal court, a court exercising federal jurisdiction or a court of a Territory (paragraph 93.2(2)(a)). A court may also restrict the publication of, and access to, evidence (paragraphs 93.2(2)(b) – (c)).
This clause substantially replicates section 85B of the Crimes Act except to the extent that subclause 93.2(2) refers to ‘security or defence’ interests rather then only defence interests. By extending the application of this provision to take account of security interests, clause 93.2 responds to the changing nature of the security and defence environment, which has also influenced other provisions in the Bill.
Under clause 93.2 the presiding judge retains the discretion with regard to the question of whether court proceedings remain open or are closed in the interests of the Commonwealth’s security or defence.
Subclause 93.2(3) provides that a person who violates an order made or direction given under this section commits an offence and prescribes a maximum penalty of five years imprisonment.
Clause 94.1 substantially replicates section 85D of the Crimes Act and provides, in effect, that the product of any contravention of Part 5.2 is forfeited to the Commonwealth. This includes documents and other forms of information collected for the purposes of committing an offence under Division 91, soundings obtained in contravention of section 92.1 and reports produced contrary to an order made under section 93.2.
Section 85D will continue to apply in relation to Part VII of the Crimes Act.
Schedule 2 makes consequential amendments to legislation that refers to provisions in Part VII of the Crimes Act that are repealed as a result of this Bill. Where appropriate, these references are replaced with references to equivalent provisions in the Criminal Code.
Item 1 repeals subsection 4J(7) of the Crimes Act and replaces it with the same provision except to the extent that it omits references to provisions in the Crimes Act that are repealed as a result of this Bill and replaces them with references to equivalent provisions in the Criminal Code.
Item 2 repeals subsection 4J(7) of the Crimes Act and replaces it with the same provision except to the extent that it omits references to provisions in the Crimes Act that are repealed as a result of this Bill and the Security Legislation Amendment (Terrorism) Bill 2002 and replaces them with references to equivalent provisions in the Criminal Code. This item will operate if this Bill receives the Royal Assent before the Security Legislation Amendment (Terrorism) Bill 2002 which contains the same provision in relation to amending subsection 4J(7) of the Crimes Act.
Item 3 amends paragraph 79(1)(a) of the Crimes Act to ensure that the definition of prescribed information captures information that has been made or obtained in contravention of sections 91.1 (espionage and similar activities) or 92.1 (soundings) of the Criminal Code.
Item 4 amends subsection 79(5) of the Crimes Act to repeal the reference to section 78 of the Crimes Act which is repealed as a result of this Bill, and replace it with a reference to section 91.1 of the Criminal Code.
Item 5 amends the Australian Protective Service Act to repeal the reference to section 78 of the Crimes Act which is repealed as a result of this Bill, and replace it with a reference to section 91.1 of the Criminal Code (Item 6).
Item 7 amends the Australian Protective Service Act to omit references to sections of the Crimes Act that will be deleted under this Bill (subsections 84(2), (3) and (4)).